On the Roots of Gender Inequality in Developing Countries

By Alan S. Cajes, PhD

Gender inequality is more pronounced in poorer countries compared to the richer economies. It does not follow, however, that poverty is the root cause of gender inequality. What brings about inequality among males and females are societal factors and determinants that are embedded in the way of life of some poor countries. The gender gaps (in favor of the males) are documented in the following areas: level of college education, life expectancy, employment, violence, labor force participation, decision making authority in the households, livelihood generation, etc.

The cultural factors that cause gender inequality include patrilocality (a household living near the husband’s family), support to old-age parents provided by sons, dowry system (payment by the bride’s parents to the couple at the time of marriage), patrilineality (property ownership is passed on to male heirs), special role of the males in religious rituals, concern for women’s safety and purity, etc.

Gender inequality occurs largely and systematically in poorer countries where the cultural practices are generally privileging the males compared to the females. In a way, poverty affects both males and females, but the physical stature of the men are more predisposed to bear the physical burden associated with a poor household.

In the rural area where I spent my childhood, the males were the priority when it comes to paid labor, such as working in farms or other forms of manual labor. Economic activities and traditional forms of livelihood are also dominated by males. Since the males provide for the economic support of the household, it follows that they also have a stronger voice in decision making.

The fields of politics and religious life are also male dominated. Traditionally, the women provide support to the male leaders and religious leaders. This also extends to the school and the workplace, where higher positions are generally male dominated. Thus, workplace policies and standards are generally biased in favor to men. That is why policies that address gender inequity are usually perceived as mechanisms to ward of males rather than females.

Poverty is not the cause of gender inequality. It is however a social determinant that is reinforced by cultural factors that are formed partly by limited economic opportunities.

Culture and Development

By Alan S. Cajes, PhD

“Culture and Development: A Study” is a 1994 UNESCO paper written by Mervyn Claxton in time for the celebration of the World Decade for Cultural Development. It aimed to re-examine the concept of development using culture as a lens in the light of the experiences of several countries. The study also showed that culture and tradition are important determinants of development. Thus culture and tradition can serve as the planting ground for a suitable species of development. If there is a clash between economic model on the one hand, and the cultural and tradition on the other hand, a rupture could occur, in addition to an economic failure or disaster.

The paper explained that the western concept of development was an offshoot of cultural forces that are shared by western countries. It also showed that non-western countries can formulate their respective versions of development that is suitable to its culture and tradition.

Culture is viewed as an indispensable determinant of development for all people throughout history. The interrelationship between culture and development was broken with the propagation of a western concept of development and its subsequent implementation in non-western countries. The author used concepts from related literature and experiences from western and non-western countries to pursue the idea that culture, traditions, history, philosophy, faith, and other cultural assets provide the context for a model of development. Thus, the role of culture in development must be examined and re-examined.

The standard idea of Western progress is economic development -- to increase the standard of people as a whole. When this approach fails in western countries, the effect is not as bad as non-western countries. Western countries have “internal mechanisms to address any distortion” since the concept is largely suitable for western conditions. This is not the case in non-western countries where failure to adopt the model would result in ruptures of the socio-cultural, economic, and political dimensions.

The Western model of economic development is a product of its age. In western countries, the idea of progress was born out of cultural assets, such as individualism, competition, wealth accumulation, and capitalism. Individualism was a consequence of historical factors that eventually led to the formulation of philosophical concepts and religious beliefs that celebrate individual freedom, which is the banner of liberalism. Liberalism abhors the restrictions of the old states and governments as represented by kings and monarchs; hence, political liberalism and liberal democracy. It also breaks away from the controlling grip of the government entities and rejoices in the unseen hand of economics; hence, economic liberalism and free enterprise.

Liberal democracy and market-oriented free enterprise allowed capitalism to thrive and dominate western economic development. Capitalism implies the use of property by the owners, and the restricted use of the property by the non-owners. This, in turn, enables the capitalists to use capital to generate more capital through an endless process of wealth accumulation.

This can be illustrated by the experience of a feudal landlord, who invests in real estate to transform an agricultural land into a real estate location. This approach enables him to keep his property and accumulate more wealth in the process. Driven by the success of his economic model, he buys other parcels of land, including agricultural lands, and then converts these lands into more housing and real estate structures, thereby further increasing his wealth. The expansion of his wealth increases his status symbol in the community, thereby gaining political influence that supports his economic standing in the community.

Armed with economic power and political influence, the real estate developer can have access to more land, including those that have pristine environmental conditions or have critical environmental functions. Since this economic model does not consider economics as a sub-set of ecology, it encroaches into the valuable ecological systems that have nurtured various and valuable cultural assets and traditions. When this model is transplanted in areas where the indigenous communities thrive, the result is a rupture between culture and lifestyle, between the traditional way of life and the modern way of existence.

This real estate development mentality is one of the culprits for the unstainable development pattern in the country. From being the Pearl of the Orient Seas, the country’s ecological footprint is now higher than biocapacity. This means that our demand of the natural resource is higher than the supply of natural resources. No wonder, our forest cover is less than 25% of the total land area. In some provinces, the forest cover is lower than four percent of the total land area. With degraded forest cover comes the problem of soil erosion, soil acidity, siltation of freshwater and coastal areas, depletion of fish stock, low farm productivity, flooding, etc. One of the causes of deforestation was the plantation economy that was introduced by the Spaniards and the Americans.

Sixto K. Roxas, an eminent fellow of the Development Academy of the Philippines, shared with us last week that those countries that attained early progress did so through industrialization that was fueled by resources of the home countries, and later on by colonizing other countries to exploit crops, minerals, timber, and other natural resources. The colonizers also embarked on plantation economy that was made possible with the slave labor from Africa.

Roxas also pointed out that the colonized countries that have gained their independence, the trademark that made colonization worked, is still evident. This trademark refers to the progress of the elites that were used by the colonizers as instruments of colonization by giving such elites rights to large tracts of land, rights to exploit mineral resources, logging concessions, etc. These elites eventually become the dominant traders, bankers, and professional who are engaged in the trading of commodities through importation and exportation. This is the path that the Philippines took during the post-colonization period.

For any model of rural development to be successful, it should be consistent with the socio-cultural context of the communities. That is why the Philippine Agenda 21 includes socio-cultural viability as one of tests of program or project sustainability. In the Philippine Development Plan 2017-2022, Chapter 7 is devoted to “Promoting Philippine Culture and Values”. It states that:

“Culture has a huge role in building the foundations of inclusive, sustainable, and human-centered development. The government will promote Philippine culture and values to weave historical narratives, heritage, and the people’s way of life into a strong bind, which will serve as a unifying force among Filipinos. This is necessary in attaining a society that is founded on trust and mutual understanding.”

Culture cannot be divorced from any development intervention in rural areas. To do so would lead to a development that has neither heart nor soul.

It is instructive to study and learn from the experiences of other countries, especially those that pursued a different path for development. According to Roxas, in countries with high population densities like Japan and Thailand, plantation agriculture fails to produce high income to eliminate poverty. What these countries pursued was minifundia – “small-farm intensive, eventually commercialized agriculture”.

Based on my visits to farms in these countries, I noticed that the small farmers typically engaged in rice cultivation, freshwater fishery, and animal domestication. My visits in successful small farms in the Philippines also point to the same formula – the opposite of subsistence agriculture.

Proper farming practices, such as natural farming, inter- and multi-cropping, etc., can transform subsistence agriculture into a commercial one that can increase farm income and break the cycle of poverty. The assumption is that the government provides the needed technical and financial support.

Historical and Philosophical Background of the 1987 Philippine Constitution

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Integrity Development Review of the Department of Public Works and Highways

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Natural Resources and Vulnerability Assessment of an Ancestral Domain Site

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On Philosophy, Career and Survival

by Alan S. Cajes, PhD

I was asked to share my thoughts to some philosophy students and enthusiasts about my lived experiences with philosophy as a field of study. That brief discussion led me to reflect more about my lifelong companion that opened for me a box of ideas from the most profound thinkers of the human race. The result is this write up. 

This paper is for lay people who don’t plan to enter the religious life, but are planning to, or are now studying, philosophy as a major for their undergraduate or college degree. The goal is to share my humble and limited experiences with the hope that they could pick up some lessons that will guide them in decision making. I also offer a suggestion on how to improve the teaching of philosophy in our country.

Sometime in 1986 in a high school named after a saint, in a municipality named after a tree, in a province named after its sinkholes, in a country named after a colonizer, I was reading a book that discussed “defense mechanisms” or what Sigmund Freud called the “ego defenses”. These automatic defensive actions are psychological ways by which a person unconsciously deals with anxiety.  Denial is an example. Smokers and drinkers who are influenced by some great writers will use denial as a defense strategy in response to the prevailing knowledge about the bad effects of cigarettes and alcohol.

While reading the book and realizing what I have understood, I felt so happy, a feeling that is best captured in Leonardo da Vinci’s statement – “the noblest pleasure is the joy of understanding.” That feeling on cloud nine inspired me to choose psychology as a field of specialization when I took the University of the Philippines College Admission Test. I was accepted by the state university and was assigned at the campus in Cebu City which is now less than two hours away from my home province by fast craft (overnight trip in 1986 by boat). I enrolled, but eventually went home due to homesickness and other reasons.

By the time I enrolled at the state university, I was accepted by the Society of the Divine Word as a seminarian at a campus in Cebu City. When I decided not to pursue my undergraduate study at the state university, I went to the seminary for an advice. I was told to take up philosophy in a non-seminary school and come back when I am ready to pursue the vocation. I enrolled at Holy Name University (formerly Divine Word College) and earned a Bachelor of Arts degree major in philosophy. My rationalization or defense mechanism went something like this: since psychology is a child of philosophy, then it would give me greater happiness if I study the mother of all sciences. Thus my decision to take up philosophy as a major area of study for my undergraduate degree was guided mainly, but not solely, by a desire to learn and understand, aptly represented by Plato’s description of philosophy as the highest form of inquiry.

Desire to understand is a lofty aim, but there were factors that made me question my decision to study philosophy. This is not to say that I am disappointed by the decision to study philosophy. Several years after graduating from college, I completed a master of arts major in philosophy and then a doctorate that used phenomenology and hermeneutics as research methods. But there were factors that haunted me when I started facing the realities of life after school – earning a living and surviving.

The first factor has something to do with communicating what I know to some people who equate philosophy with being a “pilosopo” which, in our street language, means sarcasm. This type of people think that you are trained to shoot down every statement or proposition using complex, difficult to grasp, but useless concepts and rules of thinking. If you happen to apply for a job and your potential boss belongs to this type, you are lucky to get an interview.

The second factor is about the qualification standards of positions in the public and private sectors. Aside from religious life and teaching philosophy, other jobs hardly recognize philosophy as a relevant field of study. When I got accepted as a news correspondent of a national daily and as a writer for a senator, the key factors, I was told, were my experience as a school and community journalist, as well as my writing skills. The decision to hire me had nothing to do with my philosophy diploma. These were also the reasons why I got accepted to work in a public research and training institution where I have spent more than two decades.

There is no denying that my study of philosophy brought me so much joy and contentment. However, the realities of life led me to face the painful truth: that a philosophy degree is a liability unless you are a religious or a tenured philosophy teacher.

So how did an ordinary college graduate of philosophy survive the concrete jungle of a megacity? The short answer is I didn’t. What made me survive were competencies that I have gained along the way as an active participant of the student movement and civil society. But the lessons I gained from my study of philosophy made me live a life that is more than I could hope for. The key strategies that worked well with me are “challenge yourself” and “re-invent yourself”.

“Challenge yourself” is a concept that I borrowed from Arnold Toynbee’s theory of challenge and response. After studying nearly all civilizations of the world as reflected in his 12-volume A Study of History, he saw a pattern in the rise and fall of civilizations. Those civilizations that survived were able to provide appropriate responses to the challenges they faced. Those that disappeared exactly did the opposite.

In my case, I applied this theory by charting long-term objectives and setting the required standards for achieving them. For instance, my first strategic objective was to earn a master’s degree in philosophy. Although it was possible for me to pursue another field of study, I chose philosophy because I wanted to develop an expertise in a field that left me with some unanswered questions. I needed to have some closure or a clear understanding about philosophical issues that continuously haunted me. Recall that I decided to study this field because of the joy of understanding. Thus it was a burden to carry loads of questions that yearn for answers. It is right to say that a lack or absence of understanding can give you the exact opposite of the noblest pleasure.

To reach the goal that I set, I followed certain standards for four years as a working student and while supporting my siblings who were also in school. One of the standards was at least two hours of dedicated reading and reflection time every day. This appears easy, but when you combine the pressures of work, family, city lifestyle, and school at the same time, this was nearly mission impossible for me. Yet I persevered since it was what I wanted to do. I tried to ward off any distractions that came along the way.

Another standard that I still observe until today is to perform the assigned tasks the best way I can. There is no room for mediocrity, I always tell myself. That is why I challenge myself to implement the activities and produce the deliverables and results effectively, efficiently, and on time.

Goals and performance standards could spell the difference between success and failure. When the goals and standards, however, are no longer relevant given the circumstances that are always changing, then it is time to take a look at the contingency measures. This is what I did sometime in 2003. I applied for a doctoral scholarship overseas in accordance to my stretched goal of earning a doctorate, but I was presented with a middle-management level opportunity at work. After weighing the options, I decided to change course and took the job. That decision served me well in my career, although it also made me think of other possibilities if only I chose the other alternative.

The “challenge yourself” approach is obviously applicable to everyone. What made it relevant for me was precisely the disadvantage that I perceived when I was starting my career. 

There is another approach that helped me a lot in converting the "liability" into an asset. I call this the “re-invent yourself” strategy. This means looking for opportunities to learn new, or improve upon your existing, knowledge, skill, attitude and behavior or what are collectively called as competencies. Put differently, always look for an opportunity to create a better version of yourself.

I have seen how others have employed this strategy to their advantage. I have friends and previous classmates who studied philosophy and are now successful priests, teachers and lawyers. But I would like to focus my attention to ordinary individuals like me who studied philosophy and pursued a different type of career.

To advance in your career, it is important that you challenge yourself by getting higher education. In the public sector, a supervisory position requires a master’s degree. Or that you take up relevant management and technical training programs because some positions require minimum number of hours of relevant training. 

This implies that you have to fully appreciate the qualification standards of the position you want to qualify for and that you have a clear idea of the direction of your career. If you are a researcher now, and you want to be involved in teaching, then you have to learn new competencies, such as public speaking, adult-learning techniques, etc., and improve on what you have now.

Confidence and competence are important, but the most important of all is character. What does it profit a man or a woman if he or she has a doctorate from the top universities of the world and relevant years of training and experience, but works alone because no one could bear the weight of his or her ego?

In reinventing yourself, you need to challenge yourself. Learn new things and better ways of doing things. But develop expertise or depth. While you spread your wings to acquire new competencies, soar high to gain expertise in one or few areas of specializations. 

Thus, be a generalist, but have some specializations. This way, you are prepared for the challenges and opportunities that will come along your way. Remember that fate favors those who are ready, or those who are destined to be.

A degree in philosophy is a liability when you face factors that I encountered. When you convert that liability into an asset, you can see possibilities that will allow you to apply philosophy in your job, not just in your personal life.

A good example of this is project management. In general, government agencies and local government units implement projects that are funded by the government through aid or loan. Not a few projects fail because they are badly designed. This means for instance that the problem that the project is trying to address is not clearly identified. 

Problem identification and designing are phases in the project cycle that require a lot of critical thinking. This is an area in which philosophy graduates can excel. Other areas include leadership development, strategic planning, coaching and mentoring, evaluation studies, training management, and risk management, among others.

Which leads me to a suggestion on how to improve the way philosophy is being taught so that it can be made more responsive and relevant to ordinary human experience. The suggestion is to introduce applied philosophy courses, such as critical thinking in project management, philosophy of leadership, and philosophy of management. These courses will not just prepare lay philosophy students for post-college life, but may also encourage lay people to take up philosophy as an area of study. 

If this strategy works, then perhaps we can make philosophy attractive to people who do not plan to enter religious life or study philosophy for its own sake. By creating a critical mass of philosophers in this country, akin to the concept of planetary consciousness by Paul Ricoeur, we can help build a citizenry that will jealously defend human rights, decency, accountability in governance, and environmental integrity. This will then contribute in shaping a better future.

Notes on Federalism in the Philippines

by Alan S. Cajes

Federalism may be described as a form of government whereby the States and the National Government possess sovereign powers to ensure that they can perform their respective functions and mandates while maintaining political cooperation, balance, harmony, continuity and integrity. The States must manage their domestic affairs and maintain organizational viability, but must also contribute for the sustenance of the National Government[i]. The same can be said of the National Government, which must manage the national and foreign affairs while allowing and providing the opportunity for the States to grow and develop the best way they can. In this set up, the States and National Government have defined and shared ultimate authorities, which under a unitary form of government, is concentrated only in the central or national government.

Countries with Federal Form of Government

The countries that adopt a federal form of government include the following:

• Australia (federal parliament)
• Austria (federal parliamentary republic)
• Belgium (federal parliamentary democracy under a constitutional monarchy)
• Brazil (federal presidential republic)
• Canada (federal parliamentary democracy)
• Comoros (federal presidential republic)
• Ethiopia (federal presidential republic)
• Germany (federal parliamentary republic)
• India (federal parliamentary republic)
• Iraq (federal parliamentary republic)
• Malaysia (federal parliamentary)
• Mexico (federal presidential republic)
• Micronesia (federal republic)
• Nepal (federal parliamentary republic)
• Nigeria (federal presidential republic)
• Pakistan (federal parliamentary republic)
• Saint Kitts and Nevis (federal parliamentary republic)
• Somalia (federal parliamentary republic)
• Switzerland (federal republic)
• United States (constitutional federal republic)
• Venezuela (federal presidential republic)[ii].

These countries, however, have different models of federalism, with each model evolving based on the country’s cultural, historical, social, economic, political and legal contexts.

Pros and Cons of Federalism

There are studies that point to the advantages of federalism. Barry Weingast views federalism as a “governance solution” to maintain “market incentives” through “decentralization of information and authority and interjurisdictional competition”[iii]. Jonathan Rodden mentions the potential benefits of federalism in terms of income distribution and progressive forms of taxation[iv]. Erik Wibbels and Jonathan Rodden highlights the macroeconomic benefits due to decentralized budget[v]. Nancy Bermeo argues that federalism could “provide more layers of government and thus more settings for peaceful bargaining.”[vi]

In the Philippines, pro-federalism studies point out the need to give more financial resources and political power to areas outside Metro Manila, reduce inequities among local government units, address the armed conflict, promote economic and cultural development, as well as encourage people empowerment and local autonomy, among others[vii]. Those who are cautious about federalism maintain that the shift to an untested form of government could mean more budget for the bureaucracy, raise taxes from citizens, widen inequities among local governments, as well reinforce old or foster new political dynasties, among others[viii].

This paper does not aim to resolve the positions of those who are in favor and those who are against federalism. The modest goal is to help shed light on why the Philippines or any other country should pursue a federal form of government.

Why Countries Go Federal?

There are theories that are useful lens in understanding the reason why countries shift to a federal form of government. The first theory is the “ideational theory of federalism.” This theory states that the impetus for the shift to a federal form of government hinges on the consensus of society, in general, including the political decision and opinion makers. This theory can help explain the origin of federalism in the United States. The framers of the Constitution of the United States, such as James Madison, saw federalism as the means to share resources across states while at the same time respecting the accountability of the states[ix].

The second theory is the “cultural-historical theory of federalism”. Under this theory, what makes countries embrace federalism is attributable to the cultural differences among the population. The Canadian version of federalism, which respects the cultural diversity of the provinces, can be partly explained through this theory.

The third theory is the “social contract theory of federalism”. This theory suggests that federalism is tenable if there is a balance of an equally strong National and State governments, in which neither the national nor the state entities can overpower the other. Some of the countries that adopted federalism can be analyzed using this theory, especially the United States and Switzerland.

The fourth theory is the “infrastructural power theory”. This theory advances the idea that a central government creates regional governments or states not because of the need to secure military power, but because of infrastructural power[x]. Michael Mann describes infrastructural power as the capacity of a national government to enforce political will to regional governments or the states[xi]. A federal government that cannot implement policy within its jurisdiction will fail regardless how militarily powerful it is.

Way Forward

The scope and limitation of this paper is encapsulated in this question: Will federalism succeed in the Philippines if any of the theory is not met? The initial answer is in the negative, unless another theory can nurture federalism in the country’s political landscape. This means that there is a need to understand more the problem that federalism is supposed to solve and to examine well the viability of the solution or the cure. One conceptual framework that can be used is the public policy process that involves crucial steps like problem and stakeholder analysis, as well as policy selection and formulation. But that’s another story.

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[i] The Editors. Federalism. Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/topic/federalism

[ii] Government Type. Retrieved from https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2128.html

[iii] Yingyi Qian & Barry R. Weingast, 1997. "Federalism as a Commitment to Reserving Market Incentives,"Journal of Economic Perspectives, American Economic Association, vol. 11(4), pages 83-92, Fall.

[iv] Federalism and Inter-regional Redistribution. 2010.  In Núria Bosch, Marta Espasa, and Albert Solé-Ollé, The Political Economy of Inter-regional Fiscal Flows.  Edward Elgar.  

[v] Rodden, Jonathan & Wibbels, Erik. "Beyond the Fiction of Federalism: Macroeconomic Management in Multitiered Systems." World Politics, vol. 54 no. 4, 2002, pp. 494-531. Project MUSE, doi:10.1353/wp.2002.0016

[vi] Bermeo, N. G. (2002). The Import of Institutions. Journal of Democracy 13(2), 96-110. Johns Hopkins University Press. Retrieved July 27, 2018, from Project MUSE database.

[vii] See for instance Abueva, Jose. “Transforming Our Unitary System to a Federal System: A Pragmatoc, Developmental Approach,” CLCD, 2000, p. 1. 13; Pimentel, Aquilino. “Why Adopt the Federal System of Government? A Primer on the Federal System” presented to the Integrated Bar of the Philippines at its annual convention, Tacloban City, 27 April 2002. 14; Abueva, Jose. “Towards a Federal republic of the Philippines with a Parliamentary Government by 2010: A Draft Constitution.” Kalayaan College, Marikina City, 2002, pp. 5-6.; 1 Brillantes Jr, Alex B. and Donna Moscare. Decentralization and Federalism in the Philippines: Lessons from Global Community. Retrieved from http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/eropa/unpan032065.pdf

[viii] See for instance Habito, Cielito F. “The state of our regions.” Retrieved from http://opinion.inquirer.net/114914/the-state-of-our-regions; Philippine Institution of Development Studies. “PIDS Calls for ‘Intelligent’ Discourse on Federalism.” Retrieved from https://pids.gov.ph/press-releases/354; Viray, Joseph Reylan Bustos. “Federalism: Issues, Risks and Disadvantages” A Paper delivered at the 45^th National Rizal Youth Leadership Institute sponsored by The Order of The Knights of Rizal, December 18, 2007, Teachers Camp, Baguio City; Philippine Center for Investigative Journalism. “Federalism, how much? P44B? P51B?” Retrieved from http://pcij.org/stories/federalism-how-much-p44b-p51b/

[ix] Rodden, Jonathan. The Political Economy of Federalism. MIT August 15, 2005. Retrieved from http://web.stanford.edu/~jrodden/Rodden_Handbook_August2005_final.pdf

[x] Ziblatt, D. (2006). Structuring the State: The Formation of Italy and Germany and the Puzzle of Federalism. PRINCETON; OXFORD: Princeton University Press. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt7rqw1

[xi] Lai, Brian; Slater, Dan (2006-01-01). "Institutions of the Offensive: Domestic Sources of Dispute Initiation in Authoritarian Regimes, 1950–1992". American Journal of Political Science. 50 (1): 113–126. doi:10.1111/j.1540-5907.2006.00173.x. ISSN 1540-5907.

Natural Gas for Power Generation

by Alan S. Cajes

Natural gas is a fossil fuel that is used to produce heat and power. It is composed of almost entirely methane, but with small amounts of other hydrocarbons like ethane, propane, butane and pentane gases.

Source: Dr. John N. Driscoll & Jennifer Maclachla

The American Gas Association considers natural gas as the “cleanest fossil fuel.”[1] New and efficient natural gas power plants produce less carbon dioxide compared to typical new coal power plants. But as the Union of Concerned Scientists points out, the full environmental impacts must be considered when using natural gas for power generation or fuel for transportation[2].

The Philippines uses natural gas to generate about 16% of its power in 2016. The gas comes from the Malampaya field. It is transported to Batangas (and then to the power plants) by way of a 504-kilometer pipeline. However, the gas supply from the Malampaya field is expected to decline by 2024.

2016 Data from the Department of Energy, Philippines

To continue using natural gas for power generation, the Philippines would need to find another Malampaya field. However, since the new field is likely to be of finite supply, the country would have to buy natural gas from other countries in the form of liquefied natural gas (LNG).

Liquefied and Compressed Natural Gases

Liquefied natural gas (LNG) is natural gas converted to liquid form for ease of storage or transport. Compared to compressed natural gas (CNG), which is natural gas compressed to 3000 to 3600 psi to increase density, LNG involves lesser expense in terms of dispensing stations and transportation. The CNG dispensing stations are more expensive to set-up as they require bigger and thicker tanks due to their lower density and higher pressure respectively. CNG is normally distributed through gas pipelines and very seldom through trucks owing to their low density. LNG, on the other hand, may be distributed through trucks and ships more economically.

For power generation, LNG is normally warmed so that it can be used by the power plants. LNG and CNG, however, may be used as alternative fuels for transport vehicles. This option requires significant investments in the fuel supply and dispensing systems.

The cost of LNG supply will depend on imported natural gas prices. The international natural gas prices vary significantly depending on the source country. Data indicate that the United States prices are cheaper compared to other major suppliers including Russia and Indonesia[3].

View the video on Energy 101: Natural Gas Power Plants using this link.

Additional Reference

U.S. Department of Energy. Liquefied Natural Gas: Understanding the Basic Facts. Retrieved from https://energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2013/04/f0/LNG_primerupd.pdf

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[1] American Gas Association. What is Natural Gas? Retrieved from https://www.aga.org/knowledgecenter/natural-gas-101/consumer-information/what-natural-gas

[2] Union of Concerned Scientists. Environmental Impacts of Natural Gas. Retrieved from http://www.ucsusa.org/clean-energy/coal-and-other-fossil-fuels/environmental-impacts-of-natural-gas#bf-toc-2

[3] Clemente, Jude. September 24, 2017. Why U.S. Natural Gas Prices Will Remain Low. Retrieved from https://www.forbes.com/sites/judeclemente/2017/09/24/why-u-s-natural-gas-prices-will-remain-low/#216f7edb3783

Renewable Energy in the Philippines: An Overview

by Alan S. Cajes

Summary

This paper presents the power situation of the Philippines, including the main sources of energy, the main barriers in promoting new and renewable energy, including the key energy-related policies and programs. It also describes the related policies that have impacts on energy efficiency and conservation.

Current Status of Renewable Energy

The total installed generating capacity of the Philippines in 2014 is 127,944 MW broken down as follows: Oil Based, 3,476 MW; Hydro, 3,453 MW; Geothermal, 1,918 MW; Coal, 5,708 MW; New and Renewable Energy, 437 MW; and Natural Gas, 2,862 MW. In terms of power generation by source (in Gwh), the country has the following data as of 2014: Oil-thermal, 463; diesel, 4,730; gas turbines/CC, 515; hydro, 9,137; geothermal, 10,308; coal, 33,064; other renewable (wind, solar, biomass), 364, and natural gas, 18,690 or a total of 77,261 Gwh.

Issues Related to Renewable Energy

Almost 33 percent of the total installed capacity comes from renewable energy, namely, hydro, geothermal, solar, biomass, and wind power. In the past, the barriers in promoting renewable energy (RE) in the Philippines include the high cost of doing business in the country, the high cost of RE projects, the long period of time needed to recover the investments, limited technical support system (repair and spare parts) for established RE projects, the high cost of using RE power, and the limited capital available for RE projects. Lately, the government has established the feed-in tariff for RE projects. This has resulted in the surging interest to put up RE projects, such as wind, solar, hydro and biomass power. 

Due to the increasing demand for power, however, and the slow process of putting up new power plants, as well as poor maintenance of aging plants, the country experienced rotating power outages, especially in the Mindanao Island, which is highly dependent on hydropower plants. As a result, the government hastened the process of putting up coal-fired power plants in various parts of the country.

Existing Policies and Programs

Republic Act No. 7638 or the Department of Energy Act of 1992, the Department of Energy (DOE) is pursuing a long-term energy security strategy for the adoption of the use of clean, green and sustainable sources of energy.  The country’s long-term national energy plan is directed towards meeting the immediate need for energy while making sure that it will cause least damage to people and the environment.

Notwithstanding the fact that fossil fuels contribute significantly to the country’s energy and electricity needs in view of its reliability, the 60 percent energy self-sufficiency level target of the country aims to harness indigenous energy.  In particular, renewable energy sources like geothermal, wind, biomass, ocean and alternative fuels like biofuels and compressed natural gas (CNG), are seen to augment the country’s energy requirement.

Another key component in the country’s strategy on energy security is the need to minimize demand for energy brought about by the country’s economic growth by taking the lead in increasing public interest on the use of energy-efficient technologies and conservation practices. The launching of the National Energy Efficiency and Conservation Program (NEECP) in August 2004 is an evidence of the energy sector’s commitment to continuously work in the development and promotion of new technologies and the practice of good energy habits in the household, business and transport sector.  In line with the NEECP, the DOE has targeted a 10 percent energy savings on the total annual energy demand.

The enactment of Republic Act No. 9513 or Renewable Energy Act of 2008 establishes the policy and program framework to advance renewable energy (RE) resources and technologies, and increase their utilization.  On June 14, 2011 the Government unveiled the National Renewable Energy Program (NREP) or the “Green Energy Roadmap” of the Philippines. The NREP is anchored on the DOE’s Energy Reform Agenda, which aims to ensure greater energy supply security for the country.  It establishes a policy and program framework for the promotion of renewable energy and a roadmap to guide efforts in realizing the market penetration targets of each renewable energy resource in the country.  The NREP lays down the foundation for developing the country's renewable energy resources, stimulating investments in the RE sector, developing technologies, and providing the impetus for national and local renewable energy. 

Under the Renewable Energy Plans and Programs (2011-2030), the long-term goal is to increase the renewable energy (RE)-based power capacity of the Philippines to 15,304 MW by the end of year 2030. This is about 300 percent higher than the 5,438 MW capacity level as of year 2010. On a peer technology basis, the goal is to 1) increase geothermal capacity by 75.0 percent, 2) increase hydropower capacity by 160 percent, 3) deliver additional 277 MW biomass power capacity, 4) attain win power grid parity with the commissioning of 2,345 MW additional capacity, 5) mainstream an additional 284 MW solar power capacity and attain the 1,528 MW aspirational target, and 6) develop the first ocean energy facility for the country.

The Philippines also has a law, Republic Act 9729 or the Climate Change Act of 2009, which is the country’s response to climate change. Towards the attainment of this goal, RA 9729 mainstreams climate change into the formulation of government programs and projects, plans and strategies, and policies, the creation of the Climate Change Commission, and the formulation of the National Framework Strategy on Climate Change (NFSCC).

The NFSCC identified mitigation strategies aimed to facilitate the transition of the country towards low greenhouse gas emissions for sustainable development in the long run. The NFSCC targets include the enhancement of clean energy source, realization of full potential of country’s renewable energy capacity, improvement in efficiency of the transport sector through increased uptake of alternative fuels and expansion of mass transport system, reduction of carbon footprints through energy-efficient design and materials for public infrastructure and settlements, reduction of emissions from deforestation and forest degradation, and full implementation of proper waste management.

In December 2015, the 21st Session of the Conference of Parties (COP21) in Paris adopted the Paris Agreement that calls for all parties to “pursue efforts to” limit the temperature increase to 1.5 °C to be reached during the second half of the 21st century, sometime between 2030 and 2050. The commitments of countries were outlined in actions in the document known as Intended Nationally Determined Contributions or INDCs. Together, the INDCs would reduce global warming from an estimated 4–5 °C (by 2100) to 2.7 °C, and reduce emissions per capita by 9% by 2030, while providing hope for further reductions in the future that would allow meeting a 2 °C target. The Philippines’ INDC commitment is for a reduction in emissions of about 70% by 2030, relative to a business-as-usual scenario. This ambitious target is subject to the availability of financial and technical support coming from donor countries.

Note: This is taken from a Country Paper that the author presented at the "Workshop on Advanced Renewable Energy Technologies and Assessing their Adoption and Application" held on 14–18 May 2016 in Tehran, IR Iran