Breaking the Philippine Volatility Trap

by Alan S. Cajes, PhD

The Philippines’ new status as an upper-middle-income economy is a milestone, but it should not be mistaken for arrival. The World Bank’s 2026–2027 country classifications moved the Philippines, Viet Nam, Jordan, Micronesia, and Sri Lanka from lower-middle to upper-middle income, using 2025 gross national income per capita under the Atlas method. For the current cycle, upper-middle-income economies are those with GNI per capita between $4,636 and $14,375.

This upgrade deserves recognition. It reflects years of expansion, employment creation, consumption growth, and the steady contribution of Filipino workers at home and abroad. But it also demands sobriety. The World Bank itself cautions that GNI per capita is useful for classification, but does not directly measure welfare, equality, or the lived quality of development. A nation can move up statistically while millions of families still feel trapped by high food prices, insecure work, poor transport, weak public services, and climate vulnerability.

The first lesson is methodological. GNI per capita is not the same as national pride divided into neat averages. The World Bank calculates it by converting national income into U.S. dollars through the Atlas method and dividing it by midyear population. This matters because population growth alone does not raise average income; in fact, if total income does not grow faster than population, average income falls. What population growth can provide is a demographic opportunity: more workers, more consumers, and more entrepreneurial energy. But this only becomes development if people are productively employed, properly educated, well nourished, and connected to higher-value industries.

The second lesson is structural. The rise in Philippine income is not surprising given the country’s large population, expanding services sector, continued urban consumption, and persistent overseas remittances. In 2025, cash remittances from overseas Filipino workers reached a record $35.63 billion, while total personal remittances reached $39.62 billion; remittances accounted for about 7.3 percent of GDP, according to BSP data reported by the Philippine News Agency. These flows support household consumption, education, housing, health care, and small enterprise. They also enter the broader logic of GNI because GNI includes income earned by residents whether generated inside the country or abroad.

But here lies the philosophical and developmental paradox: remittances prove both Filipino strength and domestic weakness. They show the discipline, sacrifice, and global competence of Filipino workers. Yet they also reveal that the economy has not created enough high-productivity opportunities at home. A country cannot build a high-income future by permanently exporting its people’s ambition.

The regional comparison sharpens the point. Thailand became an upper-middle-income economy in 2011, fifteen years before the Philippines reached the same category. The World Bank linked Thailand’s earlier rise to manufacturing diversification, foreign direct investment, macroeconomic discipline, and a stronger business environment. Viet Nam, meanwhile, reached upper-middle-income status alongside the Philippines, but through a different trajectory: the World Bank described Viet Nam as powered by export-led growth, with exports surging by more than 15 percent in both 2024 and 2025 and GNI expanding by an average of 10 percent annually between 2021 and 2025. The Philippines’ reclassification, by contrast, came from broad-based expansion across industries, with GDP growing by an average of 5.8 percent annually over five years.

This distinction matters. The Philippines did not simply lag behind Thailand in timing; it lagged in industrial depth. It did not simply trail Viet Nam in growth momentum; it trailed in export transformation. Thailand built a stronger manufacturing base earlier. Viet Nam embedded itself more aggressively in global production networks. The Philippines, meanwhile, has relied too heavily on consumption, services, remittances, and the resilience of households.

The country’s upper-middle-income status should therefore be treated not as a trophy, but as a warning. The danger now is the middle-income trap: reaching a higher statistical category without building the productivity, innovation, energy security, agricultural resilience, and institutional discipline needed to move toward high-income status.

Breaking that trap requires structural renewal. Agriculture must be modernized so rice, food, and rural livelihoods are not permanently exposed to climate shocks and import dependence. Public infrastructure must move from announcement to completion, with procurement reform tied to real-time accountability. Renewable energy must be treated as industrial policy, not only environmental policy, because high power costs weaken competitiveness. And Filipino talent must be anchored at home through advanced manufacturing, semiconductor support, agribusiness processing, AI-enabled services, logistics technology, and green industries.

The Philippines has earned its new classification. But classification is not transformation. Development is not the act of crossing a threshold, but the enlargement of human freedom. Nations stagnate when they confuse recognition with reform. Average income means little if ordinary households still experience progress as anxiety.

The real task, then, is to make upper-middle income status true in the life of the farmer, the commuter, the worker, the teacher, the small entrepreneur, and the family sustained by a migrant’s sacrifice. Only then will the Philippines move from statistical ascent to structural renewal.

References

Asian Development Bank. (2026). Economic forecasts for Asia and the Pacific: July 2026. Asian Development Bank.

Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas. (2026). Republic of the Philippines: Investor relations presentation, April 2026. Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas.

Metreau, E., Young, K. E., & Eapen, S. G. (2026, July 1). Who moves up and why? A closer look at the 2026–2027 release of the World Bank Group country income classifications. World Bank Blogs.

World Bank. (2011, August 2). Thailand now an upper middle income economy. World Bank.

World Bank Data Help Desk. (n.d.-a). World Bank country and lending groups. World Bank.

World Bank Data Help Desk. (n.d.-b). What is the World Bank Atlas method? World Bank.

Reimagining Community Development: Integrating Ontological Perspectives of Claro R. Ceniza and Existential Philosophy of Florentino H. Hornedo

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Some Takeaways from "Frontiers of Development Economics: The Future in Perspective"

by Alan S. Cajes, PhD

This publication by the World Bank  provides a useful reference in understanding economic development. Some of the key takeaways include the following: there is no single formula for development; economic development is not just about infrastructure and economic activities, but also covers knowledge, institutions, and culture; the new growth theory underscores the role of ideas in promoting economic growth; the proper implementation of good ideas can increase the country’s total productivity; innovation serves as a catalyst to hasten the occurrence of development, and  innovation can be used to offset diminishing returns.  Indeed, sound ideas are part of human capital. Thus entrepreneurial ability, as a form of human capital, can help accelerate the process of economic development.

Structural changes and better economic outcomes can also be fostered by scientific ideas and rationality.  That is why the importation of ideas is generally accepted as a strategy to stimulate economic development. However, ideas are an insufficient, although a necessary, condition for development. Bad ideas have wreaked havoc on the economies of many nations. Hence, the rejection of bad ideas is as important as the adoption of good ideas. 

The story of economic development is paved with good and bad ideas. This is clearly demonstrated by the experiences of several socialist countries. In the case of the Philippines, the infusion of liberal ideas eventually awakened the consciousness of the natives about the bad economic situation they had after more than three centuries of Spanish domination. The lessons that the Ilustrados gained, by visiting and studying in other countries, enabled them to distinguish between right and wrong political and economic ideas.

The post-World War II Philippines was generally a poignant reminder of the failures of the import-substitution industrialization. This idea was adopted despite the fact that it was meant for industrial countries. To some extent, import-substitution industrialization produced some benefits, such as the development of local industries. However, in the long run, it became outdated and obsolete compared to what our Asian neighbors have adopted. Thus, the abandonment of unsound ideas is as good as the reception of rational ideas.

In the end, good ideas are like appropriate technologies. They have to be tested and analyzed to ensure that they fit the context of the place where they are to be planted. During my humble experiences in cooperative development, I have first-hand knowledge of the fact that a model that works in one cooperative won’t work when transplanted to another cooperative. There are several factors to be considered, such as the culture of the cooperative members and officers, their risk appetite, the type of business they are into, the supplies of raw materials, infrastructure support, access to funding and coaches, etc. 

Reference

Meier, Gerald M.; Stiglitz, Joseph E. [editors]. Frontiers of development economics : the future in perspective (English). Washington, D.C. : World Bank Group. http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/586861468762924370/Frontiers-of-development-economics-the-future-in-perspective

On the Colonial Origins of Comparative Development

by Alan S. Cajes, PhD

Institutions that protect property rights and provide equitable policies are likely to promote meritocracy, thus invest more in physical and human capital development as drivers for increased income. Such institutions, at least in previously colonized countries, persist because the colonizers were able to settle. As such, they replicated their European institutions that promote ownership of private property, as well as checks and balance in government. The models of this approach are Australia, New Zealand, Canada, and the United States.

The same institutions are not likely to be established in colonized countries that discouraged the colonists to settle. What the colonists set up in the counties where they encountered high death rates, for instance, were extractive institutions that are still persisting. An example of such extractive institutions was exemplified by the Belgian colonization of the Congo – ownership of private property was not protected, there were no checks against government expropriation, and the institutions became instruments for the transfer of wealth from the colony to the colonizer.

The quality of institutions is important for the development and prosperity of national economies. The authors cited the different levels of well being between the North and South Korea, as well as the East and West Germany where one country stagnated due to extractive institutions that harbor central planning and collective ownership, while the other has high income driven by free market capitalism. 

Institutions play a critical role in the success or failure of nations. In colonized countries like the Philippines, extractive institutions still persist. This happened due to the exploitation of the colonizers using a small number of landowners, who provided the plantations that produced exports for the colonizers. This class of entrepreneurs acquired the rights to extract minerals and harvest timber from the country’s natural resources. They also became the traders, bankers, and professionals that serve the export-import industries.

Such extractive institutions persisted even after the Second World War with the Philippines adopting an internal colonization mode of agricultural development. In this model, the Filipino elites replaced the colonizers and kept the plantation, natural resources-extractive, export-oriented, and import dependent economy. This small Filipino elites amass wealth, wield political power, and entrench themselves in government through regulatory capture. Thus, some political leaders unknowingly become puppets of these elites.

Reference

The Colonial Origins of Comparative Development: An Empirical Investigation Author(s): Daron Acemoglu, Simon Johnson, James A. Robinson Source: The American Economic Review, Vol. 91, No. 5 (Dec., 2001), pp. 1369-1401 Published by: American Economic Association 

Sustainable Development: Perspective from the Philippines

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On the Roots of Gender Inequality in Developing Countries

By Alan S. Cajes, PhD

Gender inequality is more pronounced in poorer countries compared to the richer economies. It does not follow, however, that poverty is the root cause of gender inequality. What brings about inequality among males and females are societal factors and determinants that are embedded in the way of life of some poor countries. The gender gaps (in favor of the males) are documented in the following areas: level of college education, life expectancy, employment, violence, labor force participation, decision making authority in the households, livelihood generation, etc.

The cultural factors that cause gender inequality include patrilocality (a household living near the husband’s family), support to old-age parents provided by sons, dowry system (payment by the bride’s parents to the couple at the time of marriage), patrilineality (property ownership is passed on to male heirs), special role of the males in religious rituals, concern for women’s safety and purity, etc.

Gender inequality occurs largely and systematically in poorer countries where the cultural practices are generally privileging the males compared to the females. In a way, poverty affects both males and females, but the physical stature of the men are more predisposed to bear the physical burden associated with a poor household.

In the rural area where I spent my childhood, the males were the priority when it comes to paid labor, such as working in farms or other forms of manual labor. Economic activities and traditional forms of livelihood are also dominated by males. Since the males provide for the economic support of the household, it follows that they also have a stronger voice in decision making.

The fields of politics and religious life are also male dominated. Traditionally, the women provide support to the male leaders and religious leaders. This also extends to the school and the workplace, where higher positions are generally male dominated. Thus, workplace policies and standards are generally biased in favor to men. That is why policies that address gender inequity are usually perceived as mechanisms to ward of males rather than females.

Poverty is not the cause of gender inequality. It is however a social determinant that is reinforced by cultural factors that are formed partly by limited economic opportunities.

Culture and Development

By Alan S. Cajes, PhD

“Culture and Development: A Study” is a 1994 UNESCO paper written by Mervyn Claxton in time for the celebration of the World Decade for Cultural Development. It aimed to re-examine the concept of development using culture as a lens in the light of the experiences of several countries. The study also showed that culture and tradition are important determinants of development. Thus culture and tradition can serve as the planting ground for a suitable species of development. If there is a clash between economic model on the one hand, and the cultural and tradition on the other hand, a rupture could occur, in addition to an economic failure or disaster.

The paper explained that the western concept of development was an offshoot of cultural forces that are shared by western countries. It also showed that non-western countries can formulate their respective versions of development that is suitable to its culture and tradition.

Culture is viewed as an indispensable determinant of development for all people throughout history. The interrelationship between culture and development was broken with the propagation of a western concept of development and its subsequent implementation in non-western countries. The author used concepts from related literature and experiences from western and non-western countries to pursue the idea that culture, traditions, history, philosophy, faith, and other cultural assets provide the context for a model of development. Thus, the role of culture in development must be examined and re-examined.

The standard idea of Western progress is economic development -- to increase the standard of people as a whole. When this approach fails in western countries, the effect is not as bad as non-western countries. Western countries have “internal mechanisms to address any distortion” since the concept is largely suitable for western conditions. This is not the case in non-western countries where failure to adopt the model would result in ruptures of the socio-cultural, economic, and political dimensions.

The Western model of economic development is a product of its age. In western countries, the idea of progress was born out of cultural assets, such as individualism, competition, wealth accumulation, and capitalism. Individualism was a consequence of historical factors that eventually led to the formulation of philosophical concepts and religious beliefs that celebrate individual freedom, which is the banner of liberalism. Liberalism abhors the restrictions of the old states and governments as represented by kings and monarchs; hence, political liberalism and liberal democracy. It also breaks away from the controlling grip of the government entities and rejoices in the unseen hand of economics; hence, economic liberalism and free enterprise.

Liberal democracy and market-oriented free enterprise allowed capitalism to thrive and dominate western economic development. Capitalism implies the use of property by the owners, and the restricted use of the property by the non-owners. This, in turn, enables the capitalists to use capital to generate more capital through an endless process of wealth accumulation.

This can be illustrated by the experience of a feudal landlord, who invests in real estate to transform an agricultural land into a real estate location. This approach enables him to keep his property and accumulate more wealth in the process. Driven by the success of his economic model, he buys other parcels of land, including agricultural lands, and then converts these lands into more housing and real estate structures, thereby further increasing his wealth. The expansion of his wealth increases his status symbol in the community, thereby gaining political influence that supports his economic standing in the community.

Armed with economic power and political influence, the real estate developer can have access to more land, including those that have pristine environmental conditions or have critical environmental functions. Since this economic model does not consider economics as a sub-set of ecology, it encroaches into the valuable ecological systems that have nurtured various and valuable cultural assets and traditions. When this model is transplanted in areas where the indigenous communities thrive, the result is a rupture between culture and lifestyle, between the traditional way of life and the modern way of existence.

This real estate development mentality is one of the culprits for the unstainable development pattern in the country. From being the Pearl of the Orient Seas, the country’s ecological footprint is now higher than biocapacity. This means that our demand of the natural resource is higher than the supply of natural resources. No wonder, our forest cover is less than 25% of the total land area. In some provinces, the forest cover is lower than four percent of the total land area. With degraded forest cover comes the problem of soil erosion, soil acidity, siltation of freshwater and coastal areas, depletion of fish stock, low farm productivity, flooding, etc. One of the causes of deforestation was the plantation economy that was introduced by the Spaniards and the Americans.

Sixto K. Roxas, an eminent fellow of the Development Academy of the Philippines, shared with us last week that those countries that attained early progress did so through industrialization that was fueled by resources of the home countries, and later on by colonizing other countries to exploit crops, minerals, timber, and other natural resources. The colonizers also embarked on plantation economy that was made possible with the slave labor from Africa.

Roxas also pointed out that the colonized countries that have gained their independence, the trademark that made colonization worked, is still evident. This trademark refers to the progress of the elites that were used by the colonizers as instruments of colonization by giving such elites rights to large tracts of land, rights to exploit mineral resources, logging concessions, etc. These elites eventually become the dominant traders, bankers, and professional who are engaged in the trading of commodities through importation and exportation. This is the path that the Philippines took during the post-colonization period.

For any model of rural development to be successful, it should be consistent with the socio-cultural context of the communities. That is why the Philippine Agenda 21 includes socio-cultural viability as one of tests of program or project sustainability. In the Philippine Development Plan 2017-2022, Chapter 7 is devoted to “Promoting Philippine Culture and Values”. It states that:

“Culture has a huge role in building the foundations of inclusive, sustainable, and human-centered development. The government will promote Philippine culture and values to weave historical narratives, heritage, and the people’s way of life into a strong bind, which will serve as a unifying force among Filipinos. This is necessary in attaining a society that is founded on trust and mutual understanding.”

Culture cannot be divorced from any development intervention in rural areas. To do so would lead to a development that has neither heart nor soul.

It is instructive to study and learn from the experiences of other countries, especially those that pursued a different path for development. According to Roxas, in countries with high population densities like Japan and Thailand, plantation agriculture fails to produce high income to eliminate poverty. What these countries pursued was minifundia – “small-farm intensive, eventually commercialized agriculture”.

Based on my visits to farms in these countries, I noticed that the small farmers typically engaged in rice cultivation, freshwater fishery, and animal domestication. My visits in successful small farms in the Philippines also point to the same formula – the opposite of subsistence agriculture.

Proper farming practices, such as natural farming, inter- and multi-cropping, etc., can transform subsistence agriculture into a commercial one that can increase farm income and break the cycle of poverty. The assumption is that the government provides the needed technical and financial support.

Human Needs as Human Rights

by Alan S. Cajes

Human beings have needs that must be met and satisfied to ensure human development. Moreover, the needs of human beings have ontological basis, which quite simply means that as long as human beings are human beings, their needs cannot be taken away from them. And should not be disregarded. As such, needs are natural entitlements. Needs are recognized as human rights.

Human right is “that which is due to a person” based on legal, social or ethical principles. It is the object of justice, which is commonly understood as “giving that which is due to a person”. A violation of a person’s right is therefore tantamount to a commission of an injustice. Put differently, the fulfillment of a person’s right is equivalent to an act of doing justice. Within this framework, the goal of development can be understood as fulfilling human rights or doing justice.

What this implies is that development per se is demandable. Within the framework of national development, the instrumentalities of the State can be held accountable if the demand of justice is not fulfilled. Example: because poverty violates human rights or hinders a person from exercising his or her freedoms, the instrumentalities of the state that are responsible for such poverty are liable for committing an injustice.

Reading: The Universal Declaration of Human Rights

Preamble

Whereas recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights of all members of the human family is the foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world,

Whereas disregard and contempt for human rights have resulted in barbarous acts which have outraged the conscience of mankind, and the advent of a world in which human beings shall enjoy freedom of speech and belief and freedom from fear and want has been proclaimed as the highest aspiration of the common people,

Whereas it is essential, if man is not to be compelled to have recourse, as a last resort, to rebellion against tyranny and oppression, that human rights should be protected by the rule of law,

Whereas it is essential to promote the development of friendly relations between nations,

Whereas the peoples of the United Nations have in the Charter reaffirmed their faith in fundamental human rights, in the dignity and worth of the human person and in the equal rights of men and women and have determined to promote social progress and better standards of life in larger freedom,

Whereas Member States have pledged themselves to achieve, in co-operation with the United Nations, the promotion of universal respect for and observance of human rights and fundamental freedoms,

Whereas a common understanding of these rights and freedoms is of the greatest importance for the full realization of this pledge,

Now, Therefore THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY proclaims THIS UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS as a common standard of achievement for all peoples and all nations, to the end that every individual and every organ of society, keeping this Declaration constantly in mind, shall strive by teaching and education to promote respect for these rights and freedoms and by progressive measures, national and international, to secure their universal and effective recognition and observance, both among the peoples of Member States themselves and among the peoples of territories under their jurisdiction.

Article 1.

All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.

Article 2. 

Everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration, without distinction of any kind, such as race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status. Furthermore, no distinction shall be made on the basis of the political, jurisdictional or international status of the country or territory to which a person belongs, whether it be independent, trust, non-self-governing or under any other limitation of sovereignty. 

Article 3. 

Everyone has the right to life, liberty and security of person. 

Article 4. 

No one shall be held in slavery or servitude; slavery and the slave trade shall be prohibited in all their forms. 

Article 5. 

No one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment. 

Article 6. 

Everyone has the right to recognition everywhere as a person before the law. 

Article 7. 

All are equal before the law and are entitled without any discrimination to equal protection of the law. All are entitled to equal protection against any discrimination in violation of this Declaration and against any incitement to such discrimination. 

Article 8. 

Everyone has the right to an effective remedy by the competent national tribunals for acts violating the fundamental rights granted him by the constitution or by law. 

Article 9. 

No one shall be subjected to arbitrary arrest, detention or exile. 

Article 10. 

Everyone is entitled in full equality to a fair and public hearing by an independent and impartial tribunal, in the determination of his rights and obligations and of any criminal charge against him. 

Article 11. 

(1) Everyone charged with a penal offence has the right to be presumed innocent until proved guilty according to law in a public trial at which he has had all the guarantees necessary for his defence. 

(2) No one shall be held guilty of any penal offence on account of any act or omission which did not constitute a penal offence, under national or international law, at the time when it was committed. Nor shall a heavier penalty be imposed than the one that was applicable at the time the penal offence was committed. 

Article 12. 

No one shall be subjected to arbitrary interference with his privacy, family, home or correspondence, nor to attacks upon his honour and reputation. Everyone has the right to the protection of the law against such interference or attacks. 

Article 13. 

(1) Everyone has the right to freedom of movement and residence within the borders of each state. 

(2) Everyone has the right to leave any country, including his own, and to return to his country. 

Article 14. 

(1) Everyone has the right to seek and to enjoy in other countries asylum from persecution. 

(2) This right may not be invoked in the case of prosecutions genuinely arising from non-political crimes or from acts contrary to the purposes and principles of the United Nations. 

Article 15. 

(1) Everyone has the right to a nationality. 

(2) No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his nationality nor denied the right to change his nationality. 

Article 16. 

(1) Men and women of full age, without any limitation due to race, nationality or religion, have the right to marry and to found a family. They are entitled to equal rights as to marriage, during marriage and at its dissolution. 

(2) Marriage shall be entered into only with the free and full consent of the intending spouses. 

(3) The family is the natural and fundamental group unit of society and is entitled to protection by society and the State. 

Article 17. 

(1) Everyone has the right to own property alone as well as in association with others. 

(2) No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his property. 

Article 18. 

Everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion; this right includes freedom to change his religion or belief, and freedom, either alone or in community with others and in public or private, to manifest his religion or belief in teaching, practice, worship and observance. 

Article 19. 

Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression; this right includes freedom to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas through any media and regardless of frontiers. 

Article 20. 

(1) Everyone has the right to freedom of peaceful assembly and association. 

(2) No one may be compelled to belong to an association. 

Article 21. 

(1) Everyone has the right to take part in the government of his country, directly or through freely chosen representatives. 

(2) Everyone has the right of equal access to public service in his country. 

(3) The will of the people shall be the basis of the authority of government; this will shall be expressed in periodic and genuine elections which shall be by universal and equal suffrage and shall be held by secret vote or by equivalent free voting procedures. 

Article 22. 

Everyone, as a member of society, has the right to social security and is entitled to realization, through national effort and international co-operation and in accordance with the organization and resources of each State, of the economic, social and cultural rights indispensable for his dignity and the free development of his personality. 

Article 23. 

(1) Everyone has the right to work, to free choice of employment, to just and favourable conditions of work and to protection against unemployment. 

(2) Everyone, without any discrimination, has the right to equal pay for equal work. 

(3) Everyone who works has the right to just and favourable remuneration ensuring for himself and his family an existence worthy of human dignity, and supplemented, if necessary, by other means of social protection. 

(4) Everyone has the right to form and to join trade unions for the protection of his interests. 

Article 24. 

Everyone has the right to rest and leisure, including reasonable limitation of working hours and periodic holidays with pay. 

Article 25. 

(1) Everyone has the right to a standard of living adequate for the health and well-being of himself and of his family, including food, clothing, housing and medical care and necessary social services, and the right to security in the event of unemployment, sickness, disability, widowhood, old age or other lack of livelihood in circumstances beyond his control. 

(2) Motherhood and childhood are entitled to special care and assistance. All children, whether born in or out of wedlock, shall enjoy the same social protection. 

Article 26. 

(1) Everyone has the right to education. Education shall be free, at least in the elementary and fundamental stages. Elementary education shall be compulsory. Technical and professional education shall be made generally available and higher education shall be equally accessible to all on the basis of merit. 

(2) Education shall be directed to the full development of the human personality and to the strengthening of respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms. It shall promote understanding, tolerance and friendship among all nations, racial or religious groups, and shall further the activities of the United Nations for the maintenance of peace. 

(3) Parents have a prior right to choose the kind of education that shall be given to their children. 

Article 27. 

(1) Everyone has the right freely to participate in the cultural life of the community, to enjoy the arts and to share in scientific advancement and its benefits. 

(2) Everyone has the right to the protection of the moral and material interests resulting from any scientific, literary or artistic production of which he is the author. 

Article 28. 

Everyone is entitled to a social and international order in which the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration can be fully realized. 

Article 29. 

(1) Everyone has duties to the community in which alone the free and full development of his personality is possible. 

(2) In the exercise of his rights and freedoms, everyone shall be subject only to such limitations as are determined by law solely for the purpose of securing due recognition and respect for the rights and freedoms of others and of meeting the just requirements of morality, public order and the general welfare in a democratic society. 

(3) These rights and freedoms may in no case be exercised contrary to the purposes and principles of the United Nations. 

Article 30. 

Nothing in this Declaration may be interpreted as implying for any State, group or person any right to engage in any activity or to perform any act aimed at the destruction of any of the rights and freedoms set forth herein. 

Source: http://www.un.org/en/documents/udhr/index.shtm

Needs as Objects of Development

by Alan S. Cajes

Human needs are the objects of human development. Needs are kinakailangan in Filipino and gikinahanglan in Visayan.

In the negative sense, need is a deprivation – akin to kawad-on in Visayan -- that must be satisfied or fulfilled. In the positive sense, need, when satisfied, leads to a state of happiness or well-being that makes a person an important resource in a community. Need, in this positive sense, is not a deprivation, but a potential or a source of power, capability or capacity.

Development interventions, therefore, should be designed in such a way that the needs to be addressed are not simply deprivations to be satisfied, but are also capacities to be unleashed. For example, meager income is a deprivation; thus, increase in income is a development objective. However, such increase in income must be at a level that will enable a person to lead a decent life.

In other words, an increase in income should lift a poor person out of poverty. Thus, if a person earns ten pesos (PHP10) per day and the minimum daily income should be fifty pesos (PHP50), the increase in income should be at least forty pesos (PHP40) per day.

The table below shows the human needs as discussed by Maslow and Max-Neef. It summarizes the different needs --  the objects of development interventions.

Table 1. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Abraham Maslow
Hierarchy	Need
Self-actualization	Morality, creativity, spontaneity, problem solving, lack of prejudice, acceptance of facts
Esteem	Self-esteem, confidence, achievement, respect of others, respect by others
Love/ belonging	Friendship, family, sexual intimacy
Safety	Security of: body, employment, resources, morality, the family, health, property
Physiological	Breathing, food, water, sleep, homeostasis, excretion

Table 2. Max-Neef's Funfamental Human Needs

Manfred Max-Neef
Need	Being (qualities)	Having (things)	Doing (actions)	Interacting (settings)
subsistence	physical and mental health	food, shelter, work	feed, clothe, rest, work	living environment, social setting
protection	care, adaptability, autonomy	social security, health systems, work	co-operate, plan, take care of, help	social environment, dwelling
affection	respect, sense of humour, generosity, sensuality	friendships, family, relationships with nature	share, take care of, make love, express emotions	privacy, intimate spaces of togetherness
understanding	critical capacity, curiosity, intuition	literature, teachers, policies, educational	analyse, study, meditate, investigate,	schools, families, universities, communities,
participation	receptiveness, dedication, sense of humour	responsibilities, duties, work, rights	cooperate, dissent, express opinions	associations, parties, churches, neighbourhoods
leisure	imagination, tranquility, spontaneity	games, parties, peace of mind	day-dream, remember, relax, have fun	landscapes, intimate spaces, places to be alone
creation	imagination, boldness, inventiveness, curiosity	abilities, skills, work, techniques	invent, build, design, work, compose, interpret	spaces for expression, workshops, audiences
identity	sense of belonging, self-esteem, consistency	language, religions, work, customs, values, norms	get to know oneself, grow, commit oneself	places one belongs to, everyday settings
freedom	autonomy, passion, self-esteem, open-mindedness	equal rights	dissent, choose, run risks, develop awareness	anywhere